Företagens bevekelsegrunder för införandet av TQM i skolsytemet i USA är det kanske mest intressanta. I Sverige har vi balanserat blått mot rött med hjälp av Harpsundsförhandlingar. I USA propsade företagen på utbildningar som ruckar på traditionella värderingsbildningar. Resultatet är efter fem rundor av examinerade företagsledare är att VAD som faller ut är gröna lösningar, miljömedvetande.
Dessutom en företagsanda och medborgaranda (KULTUR) som ruckar på de politiska grupperingarna.
Al Gore har övertygats eller känner av vad KULTUREN uttrycker och startar en ny vandring mot Vita Huset…. Eller?
Det kan komma något litet krig emellan!!
Jag läste någonstans att Al Gore var involverad i ”Juran Institute", ett tips till politiska broilers på väg upp och ut i Europa.
Federal sammanställning av utfallet av satsningen på TQM i skolorna I USA (1994)
Curriculum Development.
The principles of Total Quality Management are being applied throughout corporate America. Statistical process control is used to increase productivity and reliability of manufacturing processes, team-building techniques are used to break down the barriers between units, survey and focus group research records the voice of the customer. These are some of the basic tools and competencies that many companies feel college graduates should possess. It is not surprising, then, that 40 percent of the judging weight in the IBM-TQM competition was given to curriculum development.
Several themes were evident in the many proposal pages devoted to this subject. The initial theme was a clear focus on undergraduate coursework. The guidelines did not limit curriculum development to any student group. Indeed, in some of the proposals there were references to graduate courses, to executive education, and to continuing education. Nonetheless, the institutions applied most of their limited resources to the undergraduate curriculum. Perhaps the best explanation for this was offered by the University of Maryland: "The principal curriculum changes proposed here concern the (undergraduate curriculum) experience since this is where the potential economic and educational impact is greatest."A second theme that emerged from the proposals was a sharply articulated intent: that the institutions were not interested in graduating "specialists in quality." The University of Wisconsin-Madison, for example, in discussing its idea to create a series of modules, said, "The intent will be to identify the key sequences of core courses taken by undergraduate engineering and business majors, and build a knowledge base of quality concepts and methods over their four-year university experience. On graduation, the student will have a strong foundation in TQM and its relation to his/her discipline." The thrust seems to be to graduate students who possess a natural orientation toward quality principles and a set of practiced skills.
A customer orientation was the final theme. In all cases, the institutions made specific references to using industry expectations to drive the curriculum development process. The principal investigators at the Rochester Institute of Technology made the point at the very beginning of their section on curriculum development: "The whole RIT culture is one of listening carefully to career requirements of its students and employers who hire them. Increasingly, the focus of many of these employers has been on quality, delivery, and customer satisfaction." The schools were eager to work with industry to develop outcome competencies then use that information to frame the courses and class materials.
This "Curriculum Development" section of the report reflects six specific intentions of the universities:
1. TQM Across the Curriculum,
2. TQM Coursework,
3. Degree Programs and Concentrations,
4. Facilities and Technology,
5. Partnerships,and
6. Process Management.
The first two parts deal with the manner in which the institutions chose to introduce TQM principles into their curricula -- either with separate courses or by embedding the material in existing coursework. While not extensive, there was some interest in developing specific degree programs or adding concentrations to existing majors. The fourth part describes the proposed use of facilities and technology in curriculum development. Next, many of the institutions were interested in generating partnerships to facilitate one or more aspects of curriculum development. The final partenumerates the special attention that was given to "process" by the grant- winning universities.
TQM ACROSS THE CURRICULUM Higher education has had a series of "across the curriculum" initiatives, the most noteworthy being "writing across the curriculum." The logic of such an approach is compelling: Since learning is most readily facilitated through a process of association, embed the material -- in this case, TQM philosophy, tools, and techniques -- across a broad array of traditional subject areas.
From a practical point of view, there are two additional arguments to be made for pursuing this approach to TQM curriculum development. First, most of the Partnership institutions made purposeful declarations of extremely wide scope.
At the University of Maryland, for example: "... we will spread TQM throughout the curriculum of each of the 1,600 engineering and business students admitted every year into the two Colleges." Georgia Tech went one step further: "We plan for every undergraduate student to graduate from Georgia Tech with an understanding of the TQM philosophy and the essential knowledge, skills, and practical experience to make an immediate and positive contribution to the productive work of an organization." Meeting such goals requires a comprehensive curriculum methodology.
Second, an "across the curriculum" approach addresses a very real problem that most business and engineering programs face -- too many required courses. The UW-Madison proposal said it well: "Business and engineering students' university programs are already completely filled with required courses on engineering design, engineering science, marketing, finance, accounting, and management, which rightly are the mainstay of the curriculum." The proposal goes on to note, "Adding new required courses would be exceedingly difficult and would be ineffective in integrating these vertical functions under TQM; yet, new knowledge needs to be learned."Several methodologies for teaching TQM "across the curriculum" emerged from the proposals. Perhaps the most expansive methodology was the use of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award examination categories. The award recognizes U.S. companies that excel in quality management and quality achievement. The examination has seven categories in leadership, information and analysis, strategic quality planning, and so on. Both Oregon State University and Georgia Tech plan to rely on the criteria (categories) to drive their curriculum development. As Exhibit 1 illustrates, the criteria can be used as a set of competencies to be infused into existing courses or to focus attention on particular teaching strategies:
Another approach is to merge TQM materials into a limited set of core courses. In 1991, an undergraduate study group was appointed to recommend revisions in the Pennsylvania State University business program. The committee recommended that the core knowledge to be required of all undergraduates be taught not in a set of independent, essentially unrelated courses but through four closely integrated courses. The four college-wide courses would be taken by all business students during the first semester of their junior year. The Penn State plan, which was adopted by the business faculty in 1992, integrates TQM across all four team-taught courses, with the basic principles being included as a module in Business Administration 302:
Business Administration 301:
· Finance, Risk Management,
· Law and Regulations of Finance,
· Real Estate Management,
· Information Systems for Finance,
· Quantitative Modeling for Finance.
Business Administration 302:
· Total Quality Management,
· Operations Management/Manufacturing,
· Purchasing/Materials Management,
· Information Systems
· Operations.
Business Administration 303:
· Marketing,
· Physical Distribution/International Logistics,
· International Business/Global Marketing,
· Law and Regulations Marketing,
· Quantitative Modeling in Marketing.
Business Administration 304:
· Corporate Strategy, Human
· Resources Management,
· Organizational Design, Social
· Responsibility and Ethics,
· Leadership Skills,
· Managing in the Diverse Workplace.
The final approach to teaching TQM "across the curriculum" is based on the development of curricular modules -- that is, teaching materials for individual knowledge elements, ranging from one hour of teaching time to several weeks, and including lecture notes, examples, visual aids, homework problems, and so on. The University of Wisconsin-Madison has committed to integrating TQM modules into the curriculum. Its initial proposal calls for three general groupings: management, quantitative, and communications. Example modules within management might be benchmarking, systems thinking, employee empowerment, teamwork, and process management. A planning team of faculty from UW-Madison and partner universities, with industrial counterparts from IBM and otherquality-focused companies, will plan, identify, and prioritize (i.e., the "Plan" stage of the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle) the vital curricular modules based on customer needs (i.e., students, employers, sponsors).
The prioritized modules will be developed at UW-Madison and tested at UW- Madison and at the partner institutions. This "Do" stage will subsequently be expanded to wider scale dissemination via train-the-trainer workshops. The "Check" stage will involve student and faculty feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of the modules. The "Act" stage will include making the modules permanent components of the core courses. Exhibit 2 illustrates this integration process.There are several distinct advantages to this approach: The UW-Madison investigators believe that the proposed integration process will make acceptance at their university more likely, as well as enhancing the transportability of the curricular materials to other universities.
TQM COURSEWORK Most of the competition-winning institutions had some stand-alone TQM coursework in place prior to their entering the competition. Further, most decided to develop new courses as part of their TQM initiatives. While there are many illustrations of individual TQM courses being taught or proposed, it is important to describe two pedagogical approaches that emerged: sequencing and introduction-and-capstone.The sequencing approach consists of a series of individual courses that are both linked and required. One institution using sequencing is the University of Maryland, which is developing an undergraduate concentration of four courses on various aspects of TQM (overview, global competitiveness, measurement, practicum). Students, working in engineering and business teams, will take one course in each of four years, supplemented during the off-semesters with executive seminars, internships, and co-ops.
The four-course sequence is:
"Introduction to Engineering Design and Quality":
An overview of the systematic frameworks for TQ and the implementation of quality through product design,specification, costing, management, marketing, and measurement.
"The Measurement of Quality":
Defining and measuring quality and the costs of quality and statistical tools that assist in planning for, implementing, and evaluating continuous improvement.
"Quality Strategy: A Global Perspective":
Understanding and integrating corporate strategy and strategic quality management within the context of a domestic and international market environment.
"Total Quality Practicum":
An in-depth organizational internship, with a final presentation before customer groups, who will grade the success of the change process. The internship will be brokered by the Maryland Center for Quality and Productivity (MCQP) and Technology Extension Service (TES), to tie into theiroutreach activities among Maryland businesses.
In the introduction-and-capstone approach, the institution concentrates resources on the development of a comprehensive "introduction" course, which is often accompanied by a senior-level capstone course. A TQM introduction course offered by Oregon State University's College of Business, for example, teaches students TQM concepts that can be applied to organizational processes. The students also complete a Hoshin planning exercise and make a case presentation of an organization using TQM.
At the Pennsylvania State University, the College of Engineering offers an introductory undergraduate course, "Engineering Statistics and Quality Methods," designed to accomplish the goal of teaching engineering analysis methods, together with the Total Quality framework in which they are practiced in world-class companies. As part of the TQM initiative, the course currently is being taught as a prototype to three sections of students, but eventually it will become part of the core curriculum for all engineers. New pedagogical techniques, specifically the organization of students into teams, will be introduced next year. By 1995-96, the course will be required for all junior- level engineering majors.
The course outline is shown below:
· Overview of Total Quality Concepts:
· Baldrige Award criteria;
· philosophies;
· Taguchi loss function;
the role of statistical and probabilistic thinking in engineering and quality improvement; a model for process improvement.
· Probability: fundamental concepts;
probability distributions (binomial, hypergeometric, Poisson, exponential).
· Introduction to Reliability:
definition of terms; exponential failure model; series/parallel/combinationsystems; redundancy.
· Descriptive Statistics:
mean, median, mode, range, variance, standard deviation; graphical tools in statistics; tools for understanding a process.
· Sampling Distribution and Estimation/Inferential Statistics:
distributions (Z, t, X, F 2 ); confidence intervals; hypothesis testing.
· Introduction to Statistical Process Control:
statistics for monitoring and stabilizing a ??????? (control charting/process capability); understanding tolerances and measurement error.
· Regression Analysis:
simple regression; correlation.
· Introduction to Design of Experiments: analysis of variance techniques;
factorial and fractional factorial designs; Taguchi designs.
· Quality Function Deployment: what is QFD?;
building the house of quality; examples.
Several institutions coupled a capstone course with an introduction course. At the Pennsylvania State University, a new one-credit interdisciplinary seminar has been proposed to expose business and engineering seniors to world-class quality organizations. Representatives of industry, service, government, and educational institutions will be invited to talk about the role of Total Quality within their own organizations. Finally, as was mentioned, many of the institutions decided to push forward with the development of individual courses. The content of such courses is narrowly focused on TQM issues. The courses are not part of a sequence. Examples of the types of coursework being developed include the following:
University of Wisconsin-Madison, School of Business:
"Quality Function Deployment";
"Strategic QualityManagement";
"Planning for Total Quality";
"Leadership and
Facilitation in TQM."
University of Maryland, Department of Continuing Education:
"Quality and Productivity MeasurementSystems";
"The Changing Role of the Supervisor in a TQMEnvironment";
"Benchmarking";
"Implementing TQM -- The Change Agent's Road Map."
University of Houston-Clear Lake, School of Natural and Applied Science:
"TQM for Systems EngineeringProcesses";
"Computer-Aided Software EngineeringSupport to TQM";
"Quality Assurance Role in TQM."
DEGREE PROGRAMS AND CONCENTRATIONSAs stated in the overview to this section, the consensus among the IBM-TQM institutions was to avoid creating "specialists in quality." None of the universities proposed anything resembling a "TQM major." Nonetheless, several existing programs or proposals go beyond offering a series of elective courses or developing an "across the curriculum" approach. UW-Madison, for example, initiated interdisciplinary graduate concentrations in Total Quality in 1990-91. There, a graduate student can earn an M.B.A., M.S., or Ph.D. in business with a TQM concentration; an M.S. or Ph.D. in industrial engineering with a quality engineering concentration; or an M.S. in statistics with a quality and productivity improvement concentration. All students are required to take courses related to TQM, quality engineering, and applied statistics to complete each of these concentrations, so there is a cross-functional experience in the learning process.
The Pennsylvania State University is in the final stages of developing a master's degree in quality and manufacturing, to be offered jointly by the colleges of Business Administration and Engineering. The following are the program's tentative core courses:
Engineering:
· manufacturing processes and materials,
· total quality systems,
· computer-integrated manufacturing,
· statistical process control.
Business:
· team building and leadership,
· time-based concepts in manufacturing,
· cost activity-based information systems,
· design for manufacturability and quality.
A unique feature of the program is that students will be organized into four-person teams, two from engineering and two from business, in all core courses. Students will receive grades based principally on the performance of their team.
The most broad based approach is that being pursued by the University of Houston-Clear Lake. Degree programs with a TQM concentration are planned in four schools:
School of Business and Public Administration:
PublicManagement; Masters in Business Administration;Management Information Systems; Health CareAdministration.
School of Education: Superintendents Certificate;
Principals Certificate.
School of Human Sciences and Humanities:
Communications; Futures Studies.
School of Natural and Applied Sciences:
Software Engineering; Computer Engineering; Computer Science.
In each of the schools, a series of courses is being developed. The School of Education, for example, will offer
· "TQM Systems for Public Schools,"
· "TQM Systems for School Administration,"
· "Cross-Functional TQM Integration Process,"and so on.
Finally, SouthernTECH has committed to offering an ambitious certificate program, entitled "Executive Quality Management," in its School of Management beginning in 1995. (SouthernTECH will pilot the program, with Clark Atlanta University entering into a joint agreement for its students to participate.) The long-range goal is to have a national broadcast of the program via satellite, with one-way video and two-way computer interaction. The process being used by SouthernTECH to develop this program is as follows:
· Form a "project" team comprising internal and external representatives to identify what courses would be included in a certification program.
· Conduct brainstorming sessions, utilizing the DACUM method, to determine competencies or participant outcomes.
· Develop a project implementation plan to identify the different phases andlevels of implementation.
· Seek out the expertise of IBM personnel and other telecommunications experts to design the satellite delivery and communications system.
· Contact other colleges and universities that have been involved with satellite uplink programs for assistance in instructional development and uplinking procedures.
· Pilot the uplink program with Atlanta-area businesses.
· Uplink the certification program on a national level.
FACILITIES AND TECHNOLOGYThe IBM-TQM competition guidelines allowed institutions to designate equipment instead of cash (or a combination thereof, with equipment counted 3:1 to cash). Consequently, there was a significant effort by some institutions to identify ways of using technology to support the improvement of curriculum development.
The dominant approach was to propose an "electronic classroom" -- e.g., the University of Wisconsin-Madison's Technical Communication Laboratory; a TQM Laboratory for Engineering at the Pennsylvania State University; three computer labs at SouthernTECH and Clark Atlanta University; and the University of Maryland's IBM Ultimedia Theater.The equipment needs are based on the proposed learning environments. The IBM Ultimedia Theater, for instance, will be a single laboratory physically distributed between a room in the College of Engineering building and a room in the College of Business, with communications being provided by the campus's new optical fiber-based network. Thirty-seven lab workstations (IBM PS/2 90) and twenty classroom workstations (M57 Ultimedia SLC) will be used. Penn State also will be using workstations (PS/2 65SLC) for an engineering lab. The Technical Communications Laboratory at UW-Madison will consist of three parts: a presentation studio, a document design center, and a usability testing center.
A team of IBM and UW-Madison consultants will recommend the exact hardware.
The software for the labs will, again, be application-specific. For example, the SouthernTECH/Clark Atlanta facilities will help deliver generalized instruction.
They are considering the following software packages:
QualityPlanning,
Benchmarking,
Customer Satisfaction Indicators,
Culture Assessment,and
Process Analysis.
The Pennsylvania State University's engineering lab will focus more on data analysis tools -- control chart packages and statistical analysis packages -- and simulated manufacturing processes.
The University of Maryland is making the most ambitious plans. Its Academic Software Development Group, a collaborative effort with IBM's Academic Information Systems, is developing a comprehensive set of multimedia materials for teaching and learning TQM in industry and higher education. According to the University of Maryland proposal:
The materials under development are rich enough to support courses covering TQ issues from many perspectives, and the hypertext authoring environment in which this development is taking place will allow multiple custom offerings to be quickly and easily developed. In addition to the presentation modes developed directly with AICS, these materials are readily adaptable to support the four-course sequence proposed for use in the Ultimedia Theater. Among the most exciting components of materials are the
· simulation of systems and
· system intervention strategies.
Classic TQM exercises can besimulated; for example,
· Deming's red beads experiments, and
· themarbles through the funnel exercise.
Several institutions requested funding to pilot test IBM class response equipment. The University of Wisconsin-Madison, for example, will attempt to use class response equipment to augment teaching in "Contemporary Issues in the Engineering Profession." The large lecture course, which currently enrolls almost 600 students, provides engineering students with their first introduction to quality concepts in manufacturing and engineering design. The proposal notes that part of the grade in this class comes from quizzes, which are given on a take-home basis because of the impracticality of administering them in class. Also, evaluation of the course's instruction and content takes place on the last day of class.
Class response technology, using individual keypads for students, would make it possible to improve the class in several ways: to give quizzes in class, to provide immediate feedback to the instructor on student grasp of key concepts, and to provide ongoing evaluation of the course content and instruction to allow continuous improvement.
PARTNERSHIPSAnother important aspect of curriculum development that emerged from the proposals involved partnerships. It is possible to view "partnering" from three perspectives: peers, suppliers, and customers.
Several of the grant-winning institutions discussed some type of partnership with one or more peer universities in the curriculum development area. For example, the University of Wisconsin-Madison stated in its proposal that it would seek to develop its management modules by working with the University of Chicago's Business School. The intent, in this case, is to collaborate with faculty members at other institutions who have similar interests and complementary skills, thereby minimizing the resource input and maximizing the knowledge output.
Other institutions -- Georgia Tech and Penn State, for example -- have specific plans to develop "partnership" relationships with their K-12 suppliers. The Penn State Integrated Model views teaching and learning as a continuous educational process, from pre-school through graduate school. Working with suppliers is a key means of improving quality, and Penn State identified two initiatives in its IBM-TQM proposal:
· Work with supplier schools to identify competencies needed for success in business and engineering programs, and help schools revise curricula to develop those competencies.
· Extend current AS400 advising project to secondary schools for curriculum planning.
Penn State has established a Center for Total Quality Schools (CTQS) in its College of Education, and it has begun a five-year project with the colleges of Business Administration and Engineering to improve linkages with suppliers. In year one, first-year students' level of preparedness will be analyzed, and the competencies needed for success in each college will be identified. In year two, process improvement teams will be established with members from the supplier school districts, Penn State faculty from Business and Engineering, and CTQS personnel. These teams will "work to match the necessary student competencies with the high school and University curricula, to develop strategies for transforming high school curricula to produce the required competencies, and to maintain the communication between high schools and the University."
Penn State's College of Business Administration is working with IBM to develop an expert system allowing undergraduate students to seek advising about their curriculum choices through the AS400 computer. The idea, according to the proposal, is to extend the advising system to secondary schools for curriculum planning: "Through an interactive network, it is anticipated that high school administrators, guidance counselors, and students will be able to query the system to plan high school coursework appropriate for intended college majors."The final "curriculum partnership" involves customers/employers. All of the institutions mentioned are developing some type of relationship with industry.The key thrust of these relationships is to establish a means by which competencies or requirements can be communicated. For example, the University of Houston-Clear Lake suggests that "the planning phase begins by seeking customer requirements from the community through workshops and other devices."
The Clark Atlanta/SouthernTECH proposal detailed the establishment of an external advisory committee with representatives from organizations with a proven TQM implementation track record: "This committee's purpose would be to identify a set of TQM core competencies that embodies the major concepts, philosophies, principles, and methodologies."
Partnerships, then, extend three ways:
Upstream,
to communicate requirementsand to aid in the development of appropriate skills;
downstream,
to generate end-user expectations;
and peer relationships to leverage scarce resources.
PROCESS MANAGEMENT A critical part of implementing Total Quality Management involves process management -- identifying critical processes and working to ensure that they are effective, efficient, under control, and adaptable. It is especially gratifying to see the attention that the grant-winning proposals gave not just to "TQM courses" and "TQM concentrations" but to the process of curriculum development. As shown previously in Exhibit 2, "Process for Integrating TQM Modules Into Core Courses," UW-Madison is a worthy illustration. Indeed, the comment made in UW-Madison's proposal was: "Our commitment includes not only the development of new courses but a system change involving the improvement ofthe curriculum development process so that it is customer-focused and continuously improving." The implications for such an orientation go far beyond the teaching of Total Quality Management principles; they speak to developing a continuous improvement process for curriculum development. Perhaps the most comprehensive process orientation was that proposed by the Rochester Institute of Technology. Its perspective on curriculum development is as follows: "We are looking at input, educational process, and output. The input or `raw material' is determined through the admissions process; the educational process consists of course content, teaching methodology, learning environment, and their impact on learning; and the output relates to how to measure success, employers' assessments, on-time graduation, continued lifelong learning, and citizenship."
Rochester's colleges of Business and Engineering have identified eleven steps in the process of integrating TQM into the curriculum:
1. Obtain administrative commitment.
2. Develop a mission statement and gain acceptance by faculty.
3. Provide training in TQM principles and processes.
4. Identify customers and their needs.
5. Form a joint COB-COE team to coordinate cross-functional activities.
6. Undertake self-assessment of each program and the educational processes.
7. Benchmark selected areas.
8. Develop detailed curriculum within each program.
9. Establish appropriate performance measures and feedback instruments.
10. Implement the curriculum in each program.
11. Monitor performance against established criteria.
Clark Atlanta University and SouthernTECH have made a commitment to integrating TQM concepts, principles, and methodologies into the core curriculum of all undergraduate and graduate degree programs. They also have taken a process approach to implementation. Their approach includes
(1) arranging for faculty orientation to TQM,
(2) establishing an advisory committee to identify TQM competencies,
(3) reviewing existing curricula,
(4) performing a gap analysis,
(5) creating a cross-disciplinary team to develop curriculum,
(6) validating the curriculum with nationally recognized quality experts, and
(7)incorporating the new curriculum into program areas.
A summary observation needs to be repeated. Curriculum development in higher education typically means the proposal of individual courses by professors who have an interest in teaching in that area. There are few "across the curriculum" efforts and little sequencing. With the exception of a college's or department's curriculum committee, hardly any other sources are consulted. The key criterion for adoption usually is the number of students the course attracts on an experimental basis.
The curriculum development efforts described in this report are different: They often link courses into a competency-building sequence, with the entire process being driven by both internal and external customer needs.
Sammanställning Roger B -94